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In IPF, environmental factors such as cigarette smoke, air pollution, and microbial infections damage alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) and microvascular endothelial cells, initiating an aberrant injuryrepair cascade [33,34,35]

10.1016/j.bpj.2011.02.055 78 BrownH

Research indicates that GHK-Cu can alter the activity of more than 4,000 human genes, shifting patterns away from inflammation and tissue degeneration toward profiles associated with repair, regeneration, and homeostasis [1]

Therefore, to investigate the mechanistic link between fumarate accumulation, succination of GSH, and oxidative stress, respiration-competent Fh1 fl/fl cells were incubated with a cell-permeable derivative of fumarate, dimethylfumarate (DMF)